Free education

Free education refers to education that is funded through taxation or charitable organizations rather than tuition funding. Primary school and other comprehensive or compulsory education is free in many countries, for example, all education is mostly free (often not including books (from primary) and a number of administrative and sundry fees in university) including post-graduate studies in the Nordic countries. The Article 13 of International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ensures the right to free education at primary education and progressive introduction of it at secondary and higher education as the right to education. From 2013 in Northern Europe Estonia started providing free higher education as well. In Argentina, Norway and Finland, no fees apply for foreign students enrolling at a university, although they may not be eligible for a monthly study allowance and loan. Bachelor's degree programmes in Norway are solely taught in Norwegian.Master's degree programmes in Norway are offered in either Norwegian or English depending on the programme and/or university. Sweden, until recently, provided free education to foreign students but changes have been introduced to charge fees to foreign students from outside of the European community. Denmark also has universal free education, and provides a monthly stipend, the "Statens Uddannelsesstøtte" or "SU", to students over 18 years of age or students who are under 18 and attending a higher education. Bachelor and master's degree programmes in Denmark are offered in either Danish or English depending on the programme and/or university. Czech Republic, Greece and Argentina provide free education at all levels, including college and university.

Universal access to education

Universal access to education is the ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental disabilities. The term is used both in college admission for the middle and lower classes, and in assistive technology for the disabled. Some critics find this idea an example of "political correctness". In order to facilitate the access of education to all, certain countries have right to education.

Universal access to education encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish the dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, political, cultural, economic, national and biological backgrounds. Initially developed with the theme of equal opportunity access and inclusion of students with learning or physical and mental disabilities, the themes governing universal access to education have now expanded across all forms of ability and diversity. However, as the definition of diversity is within itself is a broad amalgamation, teachers exercising universal access will continually face challenges and incorporate adjustments in their lesson plan to foster themes of equal opportunity of education.

As universal access continues to be incorporated into the U.S. education system, professors and instructors at the college level are required (in some instances by law) to rethink methods of facilitating universal access in their classrooms. Universal access to college education may involve the provision of a variety of different assessment methods of learning and retention. For example, in order to determine how much of the material was learned, a professor may enlist multiple methods of assessment. Methods of assessment may include a comprehensive exam, unit exams, portfolios, research papers, literature reviews, an oral exam or homework assignments. Providing a variety of ways to assess the extent of learning and retention will not only identify the gaps in universal access but may also elucidate the ways to improve universal access.

Adult Education

Adult education is designed to provide study opportunities for adults. It encompasses self-motivated education, staff training and labour market training. The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for self-motivated education, the Ministry of Employment and the Economy for labour market training and employers for staff training.

Some 800 educational institutions provide further and continuing education of varying duration, non-degree studies, as well as education leading to a qualification. Learning mostly takes place in working life and through informal studies using networks, libraries and other learning environments.

More than 1.7 million citizens participate in different types of adult education each year. More than half of this number is made up of the working age population, and this figure is high also in international terms. The aim is for the annual share of the working age population participating in education to reach 60 per cent by 2012. To achieve this figure, the participation base needs to be expanded and the study opportunities of the population groups who participate the least must be improved. The goal is to increase the study opportunities of people with no vocational education and training or whose education is outdated, entrepreneurs, the staff of small and medium-sized enterprises, immigrants and people aged over 55.
An average of 12 per cent of the Ministry of Education and Culture’s main title of expenditure is allocated to adult education. Of this total, about 40 per cent is allocated to vocational adult education and training and apprenticeship training, one fourth goes to adult education provided by higher education institutions, a fifth to liberal adult education, and about 5 per cent to developing adult education and continuing education for teaching staff.


The tasks and key reforms of adult education policy
The tasks of adult education policy are to ensure the availability and competence of the labour force, provide educational opportunities for the entire adult population, and strengthen social cohesion and equality. Adult education policy supports efforts to extend working life, raise the employment rate, improve productivity, enhance multiculturalism and implement the conditions for lifelong learning. In addition, adult education alleviates the effects of the recession.

The reform of adult education encompasses vocational adult education and training, apprenticeship training, adult education provided by higher education institutions, labour market training for adults, and staff training. A steering group was appointed for the preparatory work and it includes representatives from the ministries responsible for the reforms (the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health and the Ministry of Employment and the Economy) as well as from national labour market organisations. The main proposals were completed in the summer of 2009 (Ministry of Education 2009:11), and their implementation has begun. Some of the key issues include strengthening learning in working life, recognising skills that have been acquired in different ways, facilitating opportunities to combine studies in a flexible way, enhancing adult education offered by higher education institutions, making information, guidance and counselling services more effective in order to improve the relevance of adult education, increasing study opportunities for the population groups that are least represented in adult education, clarifying the benefit systems available for adult education, and expanding the funding base. The implementation of the reforms to adult education requires extensive cooperation between the different ministries, labour market organisations as well as educational institutions and universities.

Liberal adult education has the task of responding to changing educational needs and, through its activities, of strengthening social cohesion, active citizenship and the conditions for lifelong learning. The development programme for liberal adult education is scheduled for 2009-2012. The proposals of the preparatory committee (Ministry of Education 2009:12) are serving as the basis for amending the legislation, funding system and the maintaining organisation and institutional structure of liberal adult education. Responding to the educational needs of immigrants, those who need educational rehabilitation, the unemployed and senior citizens, as well as ensuring the regional availability of education are emphasised.

Apprenticeship training constitutes the main form of learning in working life. An increasing share of vocational upper secondary education and training and vocational further education and training is arranged through apprenticeships. Apprenticeship training will be developed and expanded in accordance with the proposals of the rapporteur (Ministry of Education 2009:1) and the policies connected to the reforms to adult education. In 2009, apprenticeship-type training was integrated into continuing education for people with higher education degrees. In addition, labour market training is provided in the form of apprenticeship training.

The opportunities of teaching staff to constantly develop their professional competence will be improved by the launch of the Osaava programme and the recommendations of the working group (Ministry of Education 2009:16). Continuing education for teaching staff with an immigrant background will be a priority over the next few years.
 
The study opportunities of immigrants will be enhanced at all educational levels. The focus areas with respect to the adult population will be to improve language teaching and enhance study opportunities that support employment and integration.

Adult education and the Ministry of Education and Culture

At the Ministry of Education and Culture, adult education comes under the Division for Adult Education and Training Policy of the Department for Higher Education and Science Policy. The Division handles issues relating to adult education, liberal adult education and the promotion of educational policy based on the principle of lifelong learning. The following issues come under the scope of the Division for Adult Education and Training Policy:

• Developing the conditions for national adult education policy and lifelong learning
• Vocational adult education and training, apprenticeship training and competence-based qualifications
• Adult education offered by higher education institutions and open learning
• General adult education and national certificates of language proficiency
• Liberal adult education and educational and guidance organisations
• Guidance on adult education, counselling and the recognition of competence acquired in different ways
• Assessing the need for and provision of adult education as well as guidance (permission to provide education and performance steering)
• Coordinating training for teaching staff and immigrants
• Legislation, funding and economic planning for the sector
• The quality of the activities, evaluations and international cooperation

The Council for Lifelong Learning is an expert body within the Ministry of Education and Culture, which considers issues relating to cooperation between education and working life as well as the conditions for lifelong learning and developing adult education.

History of Russian Eduacation

Education in Russia has traditionally been a very important part of life. Mass education there took root with Peter the Great in the beginning of the 18th century. As his first act as tsar, he departed Russia to study abroad in Germany and Holland. When he returned, he placed great emphasis in establishing modern education systems in Russia as he had seen in those countries.

Under Peter’s system, secondary education took place in gymnasia, which were later divided into boys and girls schools. Students attended the gymnasium for 10 to 12 years. Initially, only those in high social circles could afford to send their children to these schools.  Later, in the late 18th, early 19th centuries, schools began to open to the general public.

Starting from the middle of the 18th century, higher education as a system started with the foundation of universities in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The system was modeled after that of the Germans: it was open to secondary school graduates and took five years to complete. Upon completion, a "Diploma of Higher Education" in a specialized area was granted. Since then, the system itself has not changed much.

The Soviets greatly expanded the public schools, so that (at least theoretically) the entire population had access to secondary education. They also built many universities and institutes, particularly scientific and diplomatic training centers. Many of these insititutions are still highly prestigious and, within Russia, the pursuit of higher education was and, to a large extent, still is considered to be very prestigious. More than 50% of Russians have received higher education of some sort.

As the world becomes more global, so has education in Russia. In order to more closely correspond with educational systems in the USA in Europe, the Russian system has begun to change. Now, many institutions offer Bachelor’s degrees with a four-year program and a Master’s degree with a two-year program. The transition, however, is still under way, and some departments operate on the modern system, and others on the old five-year system, which bestowed (bestowes) the title of "Specialist." The Bologna Process is also influencing the development of education in Russia.

After completing higher education, one may pursue additional postgraduate studies (aspirantura in Russian), for another three years. After one’s thesis is written and successfully defended, the “Candidate of Science” or Kandidat nauk degree is awarded. This has been deemed equivalent to the Ph.D. degree of the American system.

However, the Russian system also offers a degree higher than the Ph.D. equivalent “Candidate of Science.” It is known as the “Doctor of Science” or Doktor nauk degree. This process, known as doctorantura in Russian, takes three more years. After defending a doctoral thesis, the Doctor of Science degree is awarded.

Taken as a whole, the Russian system of higher education is one whose reputation has survived many governmental forms, and international and financial crises.  Russian degrees are recognized and respected the world over.